Parents whose children are using Artes Latinae sometimes ask us for a course description that they could give to school administrators to help them evaluate how much credit to give. We have done correlations that can be used for this purpose.

The correlation is between the objectives of Artes Latinae and the State of Virginia Standards of Learning. Artes Latinae Level I has been correlated with Virginia's Standards of Learning for Latin 1, and Artes Latinae Level II has been correlated with Virginia's Standards of Learning for Latin 1I. These correlations have now been placed on our website and can be downloaded by anyone interested in evaluating Artes Latinae coverage.

CORRELATION between
VIRGINIA'S STANDARDS of LEARNING for LATIN II
and Artes Latinae, Level II

The student will expand his knowledge of the elements of grammar.
          All remaining major structures of Latin are presented, drilled (with the CD- ROM enabling individual students to repeat drills as often as necessary), tested, and reviewed.
          As in Level I these structures are taught around a basic text presented by the CD- ROM. At Level II this text consists of 79 Basic Sentences, 76 Readings (consisting of 71 poems and five sententiae), and the first 29 chapters of Book One of Caesar's Gallic Wars. The Reference Notebook for Level II has a reference grammar which the student can either read through for an overview or use to look up individual terms listed in the index.

The student will continue to build a functional vocabulary.
           The CD-ROM continues to provide optimum conditions for acquisition of vocabulary, through a multi-sensory approach wherein the individual student may hear, see, write and speak the basic text and the items of vocabulary as often as necessary to learn and to retain them. Testing and review strengthens this process for basic text and vocabulary. Additional text and vocabulary are provided, at the teacher's discretion as to quantity, by using Lectiones Secundae, the graded reader for Level II.

The student will continue to recognize and use derivatives of the enlarged vocabulary.
          SE: As in Level I (q.v.), English derivatives are taught through the lists of derivatives in Lectiones Secundae, but in addition, among the supplementary activities suggested to the teacher in the TE for Level II, are lists of derivatives for association and memorization.

The student will recognize and apply more complex aspects of syntax.
           The CD-ROM program presents, drills, tests, and reviews the structures listed in "Corpus of Grammar - Syntax, Level II." The students can repeat exercises involving, e.g., uses of the subjunctive, as often as necessary for an individual to master the examples given. Coordinated with this process are the readings in the CD-ROM mentioned above and (at the teacher's discretion) in the corresponding units of Lectiones Secundae. The Reference Notebook, as mentioned above, provides both an overview and a reference index for this learning process.

          Throughout this inductive process the students participate in the development of a more abstract picture of the grammatical structures of the language by making directed entries in their reference notebooks. They fill in paradigms. The reference notebook is an integral part of the course and not a mere afterthought about record keeping.

The student will analyze and interpret more complex syntax in reading selections.
           The CD-ROM provides the required reading selections. Leading up to these selections are frames programmed to induce analytical responses from the students. For example, in unit 17, in which the gerundive is introduced, frame 47 of the program reminds them that they already know one way to express purpose with an ut - clause in the subjunctive, as exemplified in the basic sentence: Vulpes salit ut uvam capiat. Then the program asks them to repeat another way of showing purpose: vulpes salit ad uvam capiendam. Subsequent inferential frames induce them gradually to understand both the literal translation imitating the Latin structure and a translation in better English.
          Review of other basic sentences as well as drills for transforming ut - plus - subjunctive purpose clauses into the gerundive purpose construction prepare the students for proper analysis of the gerundive construction when they encounter it in the selections from Caesar's Gallic Wars introduced in this unit.

The student will continue to read Latin aloud, observing standard Classical pronunciation and accent.
           As in Level I, the course is particularly strong in this area. The Restored Classical Pronunciation is recorded by Professor Robert Sonkowsky, well-known for his work with oral interpretation of Latin texts. He has published recordings of readings from Catullus, Horace, Cicero, and Vergil. In addition, he has regularly performed in and led oral performance panels for the American Philological Association.

          In his Artes Latinae recordings, he has used primarily the Restored Classical Pronunciation although sometimes he has used an ecclesiastical pronunciation where appropriate. Since vowel quality is distinctive in the language and instrumental in the rhythm of the literature, all long vowels are marked with macrons. The Restored Classical Pronunciation is very important both for the teaching and learning of Latin. The ancient Classical literatures were oral in their nature and origin. Even after its invention, writing was for centuries used only for storage of texts, not for their consumption, and silent reading was almost non-existent. The literatures were composed by ear and for the voice in a living language.

     Today we have sufficient evidence of the sounds of Classical Latin to be able to pronounce them with a high degree of probable accuracy. Scholars have analyzed The statements of the ancients themselves about these sounds, (2) Ancient spellings in contemporary stone inscriptions, (3) Representations of Latin in other languages, (4) Historical developments in the Romance languages, (5) Puns and acoustical imitations, and (6) Internal structural features of the language, including metrics.

Since there is more verse in Level II, the students are given many more opportunities to repeat the quantitative patterns of short selections of Classical poetry, preparing them for verse analysis and interpretation in the future. This part also sharpens their sense of quantity in the Latin language generally.

          In 1998, a separate pronunciation option was added to the CD-ROM, namely, a continental/ecclesiastical pronunciation. The ecclesiastical pronunciation that we have adopted in this program is just one of many variants. Ecclesiastical pronunciations are more appropriately used with medieval and Neo-Latin texts and Latin music.

The student will read and comprehend passages of appropriate difficulty.
           In addition to Caesar's prose, a large number of poems of Martial are included. These often appeal to the students' sense of humor and are short enough to read quickly and thereby give the students a sense of accomplishment. Short selections from other authors, though not high in the "canon," provide appropriate levels of difficulty; these readings are from Phaedrus, Eutropius, "Dionysius Cato," and several inscriptions. Comprehension is systematically tested through programmed questions and answers.

          Appreciation of literary devices is taught on a basic level. For example, in unit 6, frames 252-266, Martial's poetical variations of a single word are analyzed; in unit 17, which introduces Caesar's Gallic Wars, devices for connecting sentences in Latin prose are discussed, and in frames 121-136 the students do an exercise in identifying these devices; in unit 19, which presents Chapter 9 of the Gallic Wars, frames 117-119 present the use of the figure of speech litotes.

The student will demonstrate a knowledge of the history of Rome in the Regal (legendary) and Republican periods.
            The choice of authors mentioned is of particular value in this area. The epigrams of Martial tell us more about ancient Roman daily life than virtually any other author. Many of the inscriptions supplement this knowledge.

          Certainly Caesar is one of the most important figures and the Gallic Wars was of enormous importance in Roman history. The CD-ROM presentation with maps and commentary is aided by suggestions to the teacher in the Teacher's Manual.

          SE: Eutropius in Lectiones Secundae is not only an easy chronicler to comprehend, but his writings make it possible to cover a large span of Roman history in just enough detail to keep the narrative interesting.

           The moral sayings of "Dionysius Cato" and the versified fables of Phaedrus carry the student into the Classical tradition since they were both popular in the middle ages, the pre-modern era, and have remained part of our heritage today.

Corpus of Grammar
All structures listed in the Virginia Latin II Corpus of Grammar are covered. For specific frame references, see the Index of Grammatical Terms, found both in the CD-ROM manual and in the program help files.

Index of Grammatical Terms

(The number before the colon indicates the unit; the number after the colon indicates the frame. An R before a number refers to a page in the Reference Notebook.)

Abbreviations R1
Ablative absolute 9:262ff., 12:190, R50
     in dates 2:397, 16:19
Ablative case, uses of 9:41, 9:105, 9:262ff. R46-50, R103
     in ablative absolute; see Ablative absolute
     in comparison 9:41ff., R49-50
     to modify adjective R49
     to modify noun R48
     to modify verb R46-48
     as verb complement 16:122, 18:151, R50
Accusative case, uses of R45-46
     as direct object R45
     as exclamatory accusative 15:163f., R46
     to modify adjective R46
     to modify noun R46
     to modify verb 9:163, 20:18, 20:143, 24:121, R45-46
Active voice
      paradigms of
          imperfective R17-19
          perfective R21-22
     syntax of R64-66
ad; see also Prepositions
     with gerund to express purpose R79, R89
     with gerundive to express purpose 17:47 ff., R77, R89
Adjectivals
      list of R35
     syntax of R85
Adjectives R6-10, R54-59
     see also Pronouns; Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives;
          Determinative pronoun and adjective; Indefinte pronouns
          and adjectives; Intensifying pronoun and adjective;
          Interrogative pronoun and adjective
Adjectives, morphology of R6-10
     comparison of 9:5ff., R8-9
          irregular R8
          regular R8
     gender of R6
     paradigms of
           first and second declension R7
          special, declension of R9
          third declension R7, R97
Adjectives, syntax of R54-59
     gender of R56-59
     with genitive 12:258, 16:40, 18:116
     inflection of R56
     order of, in sentence R87
     in superlative R40, R53
Adverbial numerals R34, R38, R84
Adverbs
      comparison of 9:169, 9:248ff., R35, R55
     formation of R34
     syntax of R84
alius (special adjective) R10
alter (special adjective) R10
Apposition R40
Aspect, verb inflection for R75
     English-Latin contrasts in R104-105
     forms of; see Tense-Aspect-Mood imperfective R75
     perfective R75
Assimilation 5:88, 7:52, 14:19, R95
Basic Text R109-129
bonus, comparison of 10:139, R8
Cardinal numbers R35-37, R87
Case, noun; see Noun cases; Ablative; Accusative; Dative;
          Genitive; Locative; Nominative; Vocative
causa, with gerund or gerundive to express purpose R90
Characteristic vowel, of nouns
      meaning of R2
     of first declension R3
     of second declension R3
     of third declension R4
     of fourth declension R5
     of fifth declension R5
Characteristic vowel, of verbs
      of four conjugations R14
     meaning of R14, R98
Clozes
     introduction to R107-108
     first removal R130-149
     second removal R150-172
     third removal R173-193
Commands R67, R91-93;
          See also Imperative mood
     direct R92-93
     indirect R91
     negative R93
Comparative form
     of adjectives 9:5ff., R8-9
     of adverbs 9:169, 9:248ff., R35
Comparison
      of adjectives 9:5ff., R8-9
     of adverbs 9:169, 9:248ff., R35, R55
Complement of verb; see Verb complement
Conjunctions; see Coordinating conjunctions; Subordinating conjunctions
Connectors, sentence R30, R81
Coordinating conjunctions
      list of R30
     syntax of R79-80
cum
     with indicative R68, R80-81
     with subjunctive 6:214ff., R68, R80-81
Dates, Roman system of 2:397ff., 20:41ff.
     ablative ablsolute in 2:397ff., 16:19ff., R50
     days of the month in 20:41ff, R102-103
Dative case, uses of R50-52
     with adjectives R51
     with compound verbs 18:147ff., R51
     in dedicatory inscriptions R52
     in double dative 16:26ff., R52
     to indicate agent R51
     as indirect object R51
     as verb complement 16:133, R50-51
Declensions, noun; see Noun declensions
Defective nouns R3, R95-96
Definition, progressive R40
Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives 2:127ff., 2:135
     declensions of R12-13
     syntax of R60-61, R87
Deponent verbs 1:99ff., 3:26ff., 10:9ff., R26, R65
     semi-deponent 2:170ff., R66
Determinative pronoun and adjective (idem)
     declension of R12
     syntax of R60
Direct command R92-93
Distributive numerals 23:11, R37
Double dative 16:26ff., R52
dum
     with indicative R70
     with subjunctive 20:77, R70
duo, declension of R36
ego, nos
     declension of R10
     syntax of R59
Embedded elements 22:21ff.
Ending
      on nouns R2
     on verbs R14
English-Latin contrasts
     of aspect in verbs R104-105
     of number in nouns R100-101
Environment (in syntax) R39
eo, conjugation of R27-29
Exclamatory accusative 15:163f., R46
facile, as adverb R54
Factitive verbs R45, R102
fero, conjugation of R27-30
fio, conjugation of R27-29
First imperative
     forms R19
     use F67, R92
Forms, verb #1-#11; see Tense-Aspect-Mood Future active participle 13:183, R15, R24, R76, R91;
     see also Participles
Future passive participle; see Gerundive; Participles
Gender R56
     of adjectives R6, R56-59
     in nouns R3-5, R56-58
Genitive case, uses of 18:65f., R52-53
     to modify adjective 12:258, 16:40, 18:116, R53
     to modify nouns R53, R103
     as verb complement 22:6ff., R52-53
Gerund 18:11ff.
     contrast with gerundive 18:64ff.
     to express purpose R89-90
     forms of R25
     uses of R79
Gerundive (future passive participle) 17:27ff.
     contrast with gerund 18:64ff.
     with dative agent R51
     to express necessity/purpose 17:32, 17:53, R89-90
     forms of 17:28, R25
     syntax of R76-77
Greek accusative, syntax of R46
Greek noun forms R96-97
hic 2:124ff.
     declension of R12
     syntax of R60
Historical infinitive 23:42ff., R77
idem
     declension of R12
     syntax of R60
ille 2:124ff.
     declension of R12
     syntax of R61
Imperative mood 11:15ff., 14:272ff., 16:89
     first imperative forms R19
     second imperative forms R100
     syntax of R64, R67, R92
Imperfective aspect R17-20, R75
     infinitives R24
     meaning of R75
     participles R24
     stem of R25
Impersonal passive 24:109ff., R65, R100
Impersonal verbs 19:114, R63, R68, R77
impune, as adverb R54
Indefinite pronouns and adjectives R13-14
Indicative mood
     forms of; see Tenses #1-#6
     syntax of R66-67
Indirect discourse 2:4ff., 6:1ff., R90-92
     indirect commands R91-92
     indirect question 6:10ff., R68, R91
     indirect statement 2:4ff., R71, R90
     problems in reading 22:93ff.
Indirect object R51
Indirect question 6:10ff., R91
     subjunctive in 15:2ff., R68
Indirect statement 2:4ff., R90
     infinitive in R78
     subjunctive in R71
Infinitive, historical 23:42ff., R77
Infinitives
     forms of R24
     uses of 18:1ff., 18:130, 21:93ff., R77-78, R90-91, R101-102
Intensifiers
     list of R31
     syntax of R82
     word order of R88
Intensifying pronoun and adjective (ipse)
     declension of R12
     syntax of R60
Interjections list of R30
     syntax of R82
Interrogative adjective (qui) R13, R61-62
Interrogative pronoun and adjective (quis)
     declension of R13
     syntax of R62-63
Interrogators list of R31
     syntax of R82
Intransitive verbs R64-65, R99-100
     ipse declension of R12
     syntax of R82
Irregular verbs, conjugation of R27-29
is 14:1ff.
     declension of R11
     syntax of R59
iste 2:124ff.
     declension of R12
     syntax of R61
Latin prose
     connecting devices in 17:130
     expressions of direct command in R92-93
     expressions of purpose in R89-90
     indirect discourse in R90-92
     involved sentence in 22:21ff.
     word order in R86-88
Left-branching modifiers 22:38ff.
Leveling R40
licet, as impersonal verb R63
licet, as subordinating conjunction R69
Locative case 10:261
     form of R95, R101
     use of R54, R101
magis, to show comparative degree R8, R35
magnus, comparison of R8
malo, comparison of R27-29
malus, comparison of R8
maxime, to show superlative degree R8, R35
Modifiers, right- and left-branching 22:32ff.
Mood, verb inflection for 4:82ff:, R66-71
     forms of; see Tense-Mood-Aspect imperative R67
     indicative R66-67
     subjunctive, see also Subjunctive mood Morphology, explained R2
multi, comparison of R8
Multiplicative numerals R38
multum, as adverb R55
multus, comparison of R8
Names, Roman 21:164ff.
Narrative tenses 19:35f., R73, R105
ne, uses of 4:257, 5:43ff., R67-69, R89, R93
Necessity, expressions of R76
Negative command 16:78ff., R93
Negators
     list of R31
     syntax of R82
     word order of R88
neuter (special adjective) R10
nolo
     conjugation of R27-29
     in negative commands R93
Nominative case, uses of R44
     in citation R44
     as complement of connecting verb R44
     as presentation nominative R44
     as subject of verb R44
     as vocative R44
non, use of, in subjunctive 4:141, R68
Noninflected words
     classes of R30-35
     syntax of R79-85
Nonpersonal pronouns
     paradigms of R11-13
     syntax of R59-63
Noun, morphology of R2-6
     cases of R2
     characterstic vowel of R3-5
     declensions of R3-6;
          see also Noun declensions ending of R2
     stem of R2
Noun cases,
     morphology of R2-6
     syntax of R43-54
     ablative R46-50;
     see also Ablative case
     accusative R45-46;
     see also Accusative case
     dative R50-52;
     see also Dative case
     genitive R52-53;
     see also Genitive case
     locative R54, R95;
     see also Locative case
     nominative R44;
     see also Nominative case
     vocative R53, R101;
     see also Vocative case
Noun declensions
     characteristic vowels of R3-5
     comparative table of R6
     gender of R3-5, R56-58
     major R3-5
     minor R5
     paradigms of
          first R3
          second R3
          third R4
          fourth R5
          fifth R5
Noun forms, Greek R96-97
Noun inflection R42-43
     for case R43
     for number R43
Noun substitutors defined R32, R100
     list of R32-34
     syntax of R84
Nouns, defective R3
Nouns of value R52
nullus (special adjective) R10
num 22:149
Number, inflection for,
     in adjectives R56
     English-Latin contrasts in R100-101
     in nouns R43
     in pronouns R60-61
     in verbs R64
Numerals
      adverbial R34, R38, R84
     cardinal R35-37, R87
     declensions of unus, duo, tres R36
     distributive 23:11, R37
     multiplicative R38
     ordinal R35-37
     Roman R36-37
Object of verb
     direct R45
     indirect R51
Omission of items R41-43
Ordinal numerals R35-37
Participles 17:8, 17:10, 17:17
     future active 13:183, R15, R24, R91
     future passive (gerundive) R24, R76-77;
          see also Gerundive
     imperfect active (“present”) R24, R76
          declension of R8
     perfective passive (“past”) R15, R24, R76
     syntax of R76-77, R91
parvus, comparison of R8
Passive voice
     paradigms of R19-20, R22-23
          imperfective R19-20
          perfective R22-23
     syntax of R64-65
“Past” participle R15, R24, R76;
          see also Participles pelagus, declension of R96
Perfective active stem formation R99
Perfective aspect R21-25, R75
     infinitive R24
     meaning R75
     participle R24-25
     stem of R21
Person verb, inflection for R63-64
Personal pronouns
     order of R88
     paradigms of R10-11
     syntax of R59
Poetic analysis, introduction to 2:182ff.
Poetical devices 2:182ff., 5:224, 6:263, 9:465ff., 10:200ff.
possum, conjugation of R27-29
Prepositions
      list of R31-32
     syntax of R83
“Present” participle R24, R76;
          see also Participles
     declension of R8
primum, as adverb R54
Principal parts of verbs R15
Progressive definition R40
Pronouns, morphology of R10-14
     demonstrative 2:123ff., R12-13
     determinative R12
     indefinite R13-14
     intensifying R12
     interrogative R13
     nonpersonal R11-13, R59-63
     personal R10-11
     reflexive R11
     relative R13
Pronouns, syntax of R59-63, R88
Prose; see Latin prose Purpose, expressions of R69, R89-90
Qualifiers
     list of R32
     syntax of R84
     word order of R88
quam
     with comparative 9:39
     as qualifier 9:145
Question words
     in indirect question R91
     list of R194-198
qui 7:36
     declension of R13
     syntax of R61-62
quid, as adverb R57;
          see also quis
quin
     as sentence connector 23:70f.
     with subjunctive 19:3f., R69
quis
     declension of R13
     as substitute for aliquis in si clauses R13
     syntax of R62-63
quod, as subordinating conjuction R55
Reading Latin
     difficulties in 10:319, 12:122, 12:151ff., 13:135, 13:150
     techniques of 14:118ff.
rectum, as adverb R54
Reflexive pronouns
     paradigm of R11
     syntax of R59
Relative pronoun (qui)
     declension of R13
     syntax of R61-62
Removals; see Clozes Right-branching modifiers 22:32ff.
Roman names 21:164ff.
Roman numerals R36-37
se, declension of 1:260, R11
Second imperative R92, R100
Semideponent verbs 2:170ff., R66
Sentence connectors
     list of R30
     syntax of R80-81
Sentence construction R86-93
     expression of command in R92-93
     expression of purpose in R89-90
     indirect discourse in R90-92
     word order in R86-88
Sequence of tenses R72-74
Slot (in syntax) R39
solus (special adjective) R10
Stem
     of nouns R2
     of verbs; see Verb stems Subject R44
Subjunctive mood 4:84ff., 15:1ff., R67-71
     in direct commands R92-93
     in indirect commands R70, R91
     in main clauses R67-68
     rules for tense in R71-74
     in subordinating clauses R68-71
     in tenses #7-#10; see Tense
Subjunctive characteristic 13:59ff., 15:18ff., R71, R104
Subordinating conjunctions
     list of R30
     order of, in clause R81, R87
     syntax of R80-81
sum
     conjugation of R27-29
     with gerundive R76
Superlative form
     of adjectives R8, R40, R53
     of adverbs R35
Supine 14:113ff., 19:16, 21:83ff.
     to express purpose R90
     forms of R25
     uses of R46, R79
Syntax, explained R39
Tense, verb inflection for R71-75
     agreement of, in narrative R72-73
     chart of R74
     in indirect statement R90-91
     sequence of tenses R72
Tense-Aspect-Mood #1 (past imperfective indicative)
     active paradigm R17
     passive paradigm R19
     personal endings R14
Tense-Aspect-Mood #2 (present imperfective indicative)
     active paradigm R18
     in narrative tense 19:35f., 19:54, R73, R105
     passive paradigm R19
     personal endings R14
Tense-Aspect-Mood #3 (future imperfective indicative)
     active paradigm R18
     in direct commands R92
     passive paradigm R19
     personal endings R14
Tense-Aspect-Mood #4 (past perfective indicative)
     active paradigm R21
     passive paradigm R22
     personal endings R14
Tense-Aspect-Mood #5 (present perfective indicative)
     active paradigm R21
     as narrative tense R73, R105
     passive paradigm R23
     personal endings R14
Tense-Aspect-Mood #6 (future perfective indicative)
     active paradigm R21
     passive paradigm R23
     personal endings R14
     use of R105
Tense-Aspect-Mood #7 (past imperfective subjuntive) 8:7ff., 12:1ff.
     active paradigm R18
     passive paradigm R20
     personal endings R14
     use of R68, R72-74
Tense-Aspect-Mood #8 (present imperfective subjunctive) 4:84ff., 5:1ff.
     active paradigm R18
     passive paradigm R20
     personal endings R14
     use of R67, R72-74
Tense-Aspect-Mood #9 (past imperfective subjunctive) 12:154ff., 16:1ff.
     active paradigm R22
     passive paradigm R23
     personal endings R14
     use of R68, R72-74, 15:2ff.
Tense-Aspect-Mood #10 (present perfective subjuntive) 15:2ff.
     active paradigm R22
     passive paradigm R23
     personal endings R14
     use of R72-74, R93
Tense-Aspect-Mood #11; see Imperative mood
totus, declension of R9
Transitival verbs R64
Transitive verbs R64-65, R100
tres, declension of R36
tu, vos, declension of R10
     syntax of R59
tussis, declension of R96
ullus (special adjective) R10
unus
     declension of R36
     special adjective R10
ut
     uses of R68-69, R89
     in purpose clauses 5:4, R69, R89
     in result clauses 12:266, R68
uter (special adjective) R10
uterque (special adjective) 10:197, R10
utinam, use of 4:90ff., R67
utrum, as interrogator R55
Variant constructions R40-43
Variant nouns
     of second declension R96
     of third declension R96
Verb, inflection categories of
     aspect R75
     mood R66-71
     number R64
     person R63-64
     tense R71-75
     voice R64-66
Verb complement R44
     in ablative case R50
     in accusative case R45
     in dative case R50
     in genitive case R52
     in nominative case R44
     review of 22:1ff.
Verb conjugations R16-29
     characterstic vowels of R14
     irregular R27-29
     paradigms of R17-29
          index to R16-17
     personal endings of R14
     principal parts of R15
Verb forms #1-#11; see Tense-Aspect-Mood
Verb participles; see Participles
Verb stems
      imperfective R15, R17
     imperfective deponent R26
     lexical R14
     perfective active R15, R21
          formation of R99
     perfective passive R15
Verbal nouns 21:93;
          see Gerund; Infinitives; Supine
Verbs
     deponent 1:99ff., 3:26ff., 10:9ff, R26, R65
     factitive R45, R102
     intransitive R64-65
     irregular R27-29
     semideponent 2:170ff., R66
     transitival R64
     transitive R64-65, R100
Verbs, morphology of
     characteristic vowels R14, R98
     conjugations R16-29;
          see also Verb conjugations
     endings R14
     infinitives; see Infinitives
     overview chart of R16
     participles; see Participles
     principal parts R15
     stems; see Verb stems Verbs, syntax of R63-75
Verbs with two complements
     acc and acc R45, R102
     acc and dat R51
Verbum sentiendi 2:344f., R45, R90-91
verum, as sentence connector R55, R81
Vocative case 11:43f., R53, R101
     form of R2, R4
     use of R53, R101
Voice, verb inflection for R64-66;
          see also Active voice; Passive voice
volo, conjugation of R27-29
Vowel, characteristic; see Characteristic vowel
Vowel changes, regular R94-95
Vowel length, rules for 1:65ff.
Vowel shortening 1:67ff., 4:18, 4:26ff., R94-95
Vowel weakening 1:48, 5:82, 7:175, 7:192, 14:16ff., R94
vulgus, declension of R96
Word formation 14:9ff.;
          see also Assimilation, Vowel shortening, Vowel weakening
Word order R86-88